College of Engineering

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    Modelling cadmium and lead uptake from irrigation water by some vegetables through transpiration in the semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana
    (2007-08-08) Mensah, Ebenezer
    Heavy metal contamination of agricultural soils is a major concern to food production all over the world. Agricultural soil heavy metal contamination is from wastewater irrigation, application of sewage and air deposition from the atmosphere and is of great importance because of its implications for human health. Systemic health problems can develop as a result of excessive accumulation of dietary heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, Ni, Cu and Cr in the human body. A study was carried out at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Ghana using water to which Cd and Pb had been added to irrigate cabbage, carrots and lettuce. Cadmium solutions of concentrations 0, 0.05 and 0.1 mg L-1 and Pb solutions of concentrations of 0, 30 and 50 mg L-1 were prepared and used to irrigate the crops. Kinetics of Cd and Pb concentrations in irrigation water were studied by preparing a 1:1 ratio of the sandy loam soil from the experimental site and irrigation water and shaken for 8 hours. The results showed that Cd concentration stabilized within the first 1 hour and the partition coefficients (Kd) for the 0.05 and 0.1mg L-1 irrigation water concentrations were 4 and 11.5, respectively. For Pb solutions the partition coefficients (Kd) were not constant but varied with time with values ranging between 0 and 6.94 after 6 hours of shaking. Moisture content of soil is known to influence the release of metals in soil solutions, however agricultural soils are generally of low moisture content. It was found from the study that the release of metals in soils was non-linear resulting in variation in the metal distribution coefficient. Soil Ca and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations gave a better prediction of soil Cd concentration than soil solution pH. Plant and soil samples from the experimental fields were collected for laboratory analysis. The results showed a reduction in the yields of lettuce by 11 and 16% for the treatments with Cd concentrations of 0.05 and 0.1 mg Cd L-1 in irrigation water respectively, compared with yields from the control treatment (0 mg Cd L-1 in irrigation water). On the other hand, there were increases of 61 and 53%, respectively in yields of carrots irrigated with water containing 0.05 and 0.1 mg Cd L-1. Yields of crops irrigated with water containing Pb concentrations of 30 and 50 mg L-1 were reduced compared with yields from the control plots suggesting that lead has the potential to suppress yields of crops. Plant Cd and Pb concentrations increased significantly with irrigation water concentrations of Cd and Pb with p-values of <0.0001 for Cd and <0.05 for Pb. Cadmium concentrations for cabbage were between 0.09 and 1.11 mg kg-1 while carrots and lettuce had values between 0.04 and 1.0 mg kg-1 and 0.12 and 1.02 mg kg-1, respectively. Lead concentrations in cabbage were between 0.18 and 15.2 mg kg-1 while for carrots and lettuce the concentrations were between 0.43 and 6.24 mg kg-1, and 1.41 and 187 mg kg-1, respectively. The percentage of the total Cd in the soil that is considered available, based on extraction with 0.01 M CaCl2, ranged between 18.7 and 96.8% for the top 5 cm depth and between 8.5 and 89.6% for the 5-10 cm depth. The percentage of soil total Pb considered available was in the range 0.058-7.86% for the top 5 cm depth; and 0.077 - 2.78% for the 5-10 cm depth. Both soil total and available Cd and Pb decreased with depth. Free ion activities of cadmium constituting the ions absorbed by the plants were determined by prediction using Windemere Humic Aqueous Model (WHAM) VI and measurement by cadmium electrode. Inputs for WHAM VI included soil properties like organic matter content in humic and fulvic forms, Na, Mg, K, balanced cations and anions. However, lead free ion activities were determined by prediction using WHAM VI only due to lack of lead electrode. Mathematical modelling of heavy metals uptake by plants is useful for predicting the quality of crops produced for human and other animals. The models also help to predict yields of crops produced using soil or irrigation water that is contaminated by heavy metals. In plant science, modelling of solute uptake is achieved by empirical models fitted with an equation or a set of equations to data. A modified transpiration model was therefore developed based on climatic variables such as temperature, saturation vapour-pressure deficit and relative humidity that govern transpiration and used to estimate crop dry matter content and irrigation water metal concentration, Cd and Pb concentrations in the test vegetables. The estimated and measured values were compared to determine the efficiency (EF) of the developed model. For Cd, EF values ranged between 0.911 and 0.953, while for Pb, the range was 0.514-0.995. The overall results showed that the model output using transpiration pull driven by environmental factors was reliable to predict the uptake of the heavy metals.
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    Bayesian analysis of the incidence if HIV/AIDS in Upper East Region
    (2009-07-30) Ali, Clement Ayarebillah
    Development and growth cannot be experienced in any part of the world without good education. Basic education is one of the effective investments in improving economics, reducing illiteracy, creating self-reliant and healthy society.
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    Improving faecal sludge dewatering efficiency of unplanted drying bed
    (2010) Amankwah Kuffour, Richard
    This thesis examines how to improve on faecal sludge dewatering efficiency of unplanted filter beds to produce biosolids and less concentrated filtrate. The experiment was conducted on bench scale drying beds constructed at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology campus. Local sand was graded into particle size ranges of 0.1- 0.5 mm, 0.5 - 1.0 mm and 1.0 - 1.7 mm, with uniformity coefficients of 2.422, 1.727 and 2.029, respectively. They were represented as filter media, FM1, FM2 and FM3 respectively. Faecal sludge, consisting of public toilet sludge and septage collected from cesspit emptiers discharging at Dompoase treatment ponds in Kumasi, Ghana, were mixed in the ratio of 1:1 by volume, and was dewatered using the three different filter media, FM1, FM2 and FM3 to determine which one was most efficient. The Solid Loading Rate (SLR) of the faecal sludge was varied in the phase two whereby public toilet sludge and septage, mixed in the ratio of 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3 by volume representing SLR1, SLR2 and SLR3 respectively. These were dewatered on filter medium one (FM1) which was selected in phase one. Six cycles of dewatering were run for each of the phases. Percolate volume was measured every 24 hours. The total solids (TS) of the faecal sludge used for dewatering varied in every cycle so the TS was kept constant at 36.64 g/l as SLR1 and 26.93 g/l as SLR3 in all the cycles in the phase three to determine the effect of constant TS on the dewatering process. Further improvement of the dewatering was investigated by mixing sawdust with faecal sludge in phase four. Different percentages of sawdust, 50%, 100%, 150% and 0% (control) by weight of the TS of the faecal sludge, with TS of 26.93 g/l which was selected in phase two, were mixed with the faecal sludge to determine the effect of different quantities of sawdust as physical conditioner on the dewatering of faecal sludge. The dried biosolids obtained from the different phases of dewatering were analysed for plant nutrients and heavy metals to determine their agricultural potential. The dewatering on different filter media, FM1, FM2, and FM3 showed average dewatering times of 9.8, 9.9 and 9.1 days respectively without significant differences (p=0.212). However the percolate quality showed significant differences between the different filter media in the removal of TS, TVS, SS, COD, DCOD and NH3-N with FM1 having the highest removal efficiency for each parameter. Accumulation of organic matter in the top 10 cm of the filter bed indicated that FM1 was least likely to clog since it had the least quantity of organic matter in the sand. It also produced the largest quantity of organic matter and thus had the potential to generate the most biosolids. The faecal sludge of SLR1, SLR2 and SLR3 dewatered significantly at different average dewatering times of 7.2, 4.8 and 3.8 days respectively. Removal efficiencies at the different solid loading rates, though very high for TS, SS, TVS, COD, DCOD, NH3-N, did not show any significant difference. Organic matter build up in the top 10 cm of the filter bed was least in SLR3, hence least likely to clog the filter bed. Again, SLR3, SLR2 and SLR1 showed the potential for annual generation of biosolids at 438, 421 and 379 (kg/m2/year) respectively. Therefore SLR3 of faecal sludge was recommended for dewatering on the selected filter bed. When TS of the faecal sludge for dewatering was kept constant and the number of cycles was increased to eight, FM1, FM2 and FM3, dewatering FS of SLR1 at constant TS of 36.64 g/l improved their dewatering time to 8.9, 8.8 and 8.7 days respectively while SLR3 with constant TS of 26.93 g/l, dewatering on FM1 had the shortest dewatering time of 4.4 days. SLR3 was significantly most efficient in removing TS, SS, TVS, COD and EC. Organic matter accumulation rate in the top 10cm of filter bed was least for SLR3 followed by FM1, FM2 and FM3. The percentage organic matter of the biosolid were 69, 68, 62 and 59, leading to estimation of annual organic matter production of 334, 193, 202 and 177 kg TVS/m2/year for SLR3, FM1, FM2 and FM3 respectively. The sawdust-faecal sludge mixture of 50%, 100%, 150% and 0% TS of faecal sludge dewatered at 5.3, 4.9, 3.9 and 5.6 days respectively with 150% being fastest to dewater. The 150% sawdust-faecal sludge treatment was most efficient with respect to removal of contaminant loads like TVS, SS, COD and NH3-N, but was least in TS and EC removal. The 150% sawdust-faecal sludge mixture showed the least organic matter accumulation rate in the top 10cm of the filter media, followed by the 100%, 50% and the 0% treatments. The percentage TVS of the biosolids produced were 70.1, 77.3, 80.6 and 66.3 for 50%, 100%, 150% and 0% sawdust-faecal sludge mixtures, leading to annual organic matter estimation of 359, 567, 987 and 225 (kg TVS/m2/year) respectively. The agricultural potential of the biosolids analysed showed that, dried biosolids from the filter beds had percentage carbon (C) ranging between 28% and 43.5% while percentage nitrogen (N) in the same samples ranged between 1.82% and 3.53% leading to C/N ratio, ranging between 8.7 and 23.9. The percentage phosphorus (P) in the same samples ranged between 1.73% and 3.69% while the percentage potassium (K) values were within the range of 0.66% and 1.67%. The maximum concentration of heavy metals recorded in the dried biosolids were 0.225, 4.38, 0.024, 0.89, 0.55 and 0.208 mg/kg for Cu, Fe, Pb, Cd, Zn and Mn, respectively which were all far below the respective standards permissible in biosolids worth for use in agriculture. Summary of criteria needed to improve dewatering efficiency of faecal sludge using unplanted filter beds The faecal sludge generated in most cities in Ghana consists of mostly septage and public toilet sludge which contain high contaminant load. This study has shown that it is possible to dewater it using unplanted sand filter beds. Sand particle sizes ranging between (0.1 - 0.5, 0.5 - 1.0 and 1.0 - 1.7) mm with uniformity coefficients of 2.422, 1.727 and 2.029, respectively are effective, with particle size of (0.1 - 0.5) mm being most effective. Using these particle size ranges, faecal sludge of 217 – 360 kgTS/m2 could be dewatered on the filter bed in one year which is equivalent to faecal sludge of 22 – 27 persons. Public toilet sludge (PTS) and septage ratio of 1:3 by volume is most effective in improving the dewatering time as well as generating largest volume of biosolids though other ratios like 1:1 and 1:2 are also effective. These ratios have the capacity of reducing dewatering time per cycle from 9 - 12 days to 4 – 7 days. This can dewater faecal sludge of between 379 – 532 kgTS/m2 of filter bed. Addition of sawdust of between 50% - 150% TS of faecal sludge by weight reduced the dewatering time to less than 4 days. Addition of sawdust of 150% TS is most effective in reducing the dewatering time and contaminant load removal. About 575 kg TS/m2 of faecal sludge can be dewatered on a filter bed of particle size range of 0.1 - 0.5 mm and a solid loading rate of 1:3 for PTS and septage in a year if sawdust of 150% TS of the faecal sludge is added. This generates almost three times the quantity of biosolids that could have been generated with very good organic bulking quality.
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    Optimization of Polyphenols Extraction Using Response Surface Methodology and Application of Near Infrared Spectroscopy to Phenolic Content Analysis of Pine Bark
    (2010) Derkyi, Nana Sarfo Agyeman
    The utilization of pine bark for processing water resistant phenol-formaldehyde adhesive for plywood production encounters difficulties due to the very high reactivity of the formaldehyde condensable phenolics and other un-intended compounds (sugars) extracted into solution, as well as time consuming and costly chemical analysis. The potential of near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) for rapidly and accurately determining the polyphenolic contents in Pinus caribaea bark extracts was assessed by means of multivariate calibration techniques. To optimize the polyphenol content, four different solvents (aqueous acetone, aqueous ethanol, aqueous NaOH and water) were used in the extractions. Batch experiments were performed at different solvent concentrations, time, temperature and liquidsolid ratio. Mathematical polynomial models were proposed to identify the effects of individual interactions of these variables on the extraction of polyphenols and optimum content using response surface methodology (RSM). The optimized conditions were used to extract polyphenols which were used in the formulation of resol resins for plywood manufacture. The first derivative spectra with PLS regression were found to provide the best prediction of the tannin content and Stiasny number of pine bark with a SECV = 0.14 and 1.26 and r2 = 0.97 and 0.95 respectively. The predicted values were thus highly correlated with costly measured values of tannin content and Stiasny number. The highest extraction model efficiency (78.98%) was observed for aqueous extraction when only tannin content was maximized in the numerical optimization process. This corresponded to optimum extraction conditions of 69°C extraction temperature, 126 min extraction time and 23:1 liquid-solid ratio. The RSM model that gave a high tannin content (18.85%) with a corresponding good quality resin (shear strength = 2.4 MPa, 10% delamination) was found for aqueous ethanol extraction when the objective function was to maximize both the tannin content and Stiasny number and minimize the sugar content simultaneously.
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    Enhancing aerodynamic performance estimation in small aircraft development using object-oriented technique
    (2010-07-12) Fiagbe, Yesuenyeagbe Atsu Kwabla
    Air transportation is expected to play a major role in global transportation systems in the future. A third world country like Ghana needs to prepare to leapfrog into the era of small aircraft in air transportation. As such, small aircraft design has to be approached in such a way as to derive optimum performance for any configuration that may be developed for given mission. Estimation of the aerodynamic forces developed by aircraft configuration forms a significant and challenging part of the design process. In practice, the aerodynamic performance is estimated from the coefficients obtained from the chosen wing profile. However, it can be envisioned that every section of the configuration could contribute to the aerodynamic forces. The goal of this work is to develop a technique or method that takes into account the contribution of all sections of the configuration with the aim of improving the accuracy of the evaluation of the aircraft performance. The concept of the research is built on object oriented technique such that an object is defined as a function that accepts an input and results in an output. The input parameters comprise of two components, namely, fixed and design parameters. The output gives the geometry and performance characteristics of the aircraft. The performance is modelled as integral function over the surface and results in determination of Lift and Drag forces. The design parameters are used in creating the geometry such that with given set of parameters, unique and specific class of aircraft would be developed. The developed system and tools were validated and found to be satisfactory. The lift performance of models with same wing profile indicated that fuselage components also contributed toward the overall lift force. The total lift and drag estimates of an aircraft using the developed system is more accurate than using estimates from the wing alone. Further, results of the research show that for design of small aircraft, drag performance is optimum at angle of attack between 2o and 4o. Also, performance study shows that luggage cabin object significantly influences the drag performance such that, shorter portions perform better. It is recommended that the influence of the luggage cabin as observed be validated experimentally.
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    Impact Attenuation System using a Passive Damper
    (2010-07-14) Agyei-Agyemang, Anthony
    The goal of this work is to mitigate the degree of damage to passengers caused by automobile collisions. Crash phenomena involving road vehicles were investigated for the purpose of developing an impact attenuation design that can withstand speeds higher than the current specified range of up to 4 km/h (for a bumper). Different impact attenuation systems in the vehicle were studied with emphasis on the bumper modeling, analysis and design. A mathematical model for a bumper was developed. Simulation of impact of the bumper against a fixed barrier was performed. A passive friction element was introduced into the bumper system to improve on the attenuation of the impact and kinetic energy absorption capacity. A mathematical model of the bumper-damper system was formulated and used to simulate impact phenomena for a 1900 kg mass moving at a speed of 70 km/h (19.4 m/s), 17.5 times the speed of a typical design specification. The simulation revealed that the energy absorption capacity of the bumper was improved with the addition of a friction element. Design parameters for the friction damper were extracted from the results of the simulation. The extracted design parameters include stiffness, k, and coefficient of the damping, c, of the bumper. The use of the results from the simulation in the design of the bumper was pursued with success. Friction damper designs were proposed. Two of these designs were built and used in experiments to verify their effectiveness and to validate the simulation results. The experiments revealed that higher energy absorption could be achieved with the addition of a friction element to traditional bumpers. From simulation, it was observed that a combination of material stiffness and damping factors could influence energy absorption ability of the damper. It was observed that the addition of a friction element to an ordinary bumper-damper system with the new design parameters can improve its energy absorption capacity by 103.6 kJ, that is about 146 %. Additionally, it was also observed that the addition of the friction element to a traditional vehicle could increase the critical design speed from 4 km/h (1.11 m/s) to 14.9 km/h (4.1 m/s). It was concluded that a passive friction damper system could be used to attenuate road vehicle impact energy in collisions (of vehicles of mass similar to that of a typical sedan car) at speeds 3 times higher than the speed for which current conventional bumpers are designed to attenuate (i.e. 4 km/h).
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    Solid waste separation at source: a case study of the Kumasi Metropolitan Area
    (2011-08-12) Asase, Mizpah Ama Dziedzorm
    Solid waste management is a very pertinent issue facing municipal and local authorities all over Ghana. Waste separation at source is often recommended for the collection of clean recyclables to support recycling as part of integrated waste management systems. Limited information exists on the quantities of various waste materials available for recycling and household’s potentials for separating waste at source to aid recycling in most developing countries like Ghana. The use of system analysis tools to support waste management decision in developing countries have been found to be low. The objective of this research work is to analyze the potential of implementing source separation (SS) of household solid waste in Kumasi and to discuss the implications of SS potential on the choice of waste treatment options. The study was conducted through a pilot SS of household solid waste in households of staff of KNUST and selected households in the Asokwa Sub-Metropolitan area in Kumasi. Household were asked to separate waste into three fractions; organic, plastics and others. The SS efficiency and level of compliance were evaluated from physically analysing waste collected from each household weekly. A questionnaire survey of selected household was undertaken before and during the pilot SS study. An optimization model was also set up to integrate different waste treatment options for Kumasi. Various economic costs associated with municipal solid waste management are taken into consideration in the development of the model. In staff residencies, on the average only 1.09% of households had contaminants above 50% in the organic waste bin, whilst 29.51% and 29.55% of households had contaminants above 50% in the plastic’s bag and ‘others’ waste bin respectively. The separation efficiency of 93.31%, 49.9% and 56.18% was achieved for organic, plastic and other wastes respectively. Waste separation efficiency and level of compliance weregenerally higher in the junior staff households than in the senior staff households. Organic wastes constitutes 69.2% of the total wastes analyzed with other wastes, plastics, paper, metals, textiles and glass constituting 13.4%, 7.3%, 4.4%, 2.6%, 1.8% and 1.3% respectively. In the Asokwa Sub-Metro, on the average 74.3%, 60.02% and 59.56% of organic wastes were placed in the bin designated for it from 1st, 2nd and 3rd class areas respectively. Likewise the separation efficiency for 1st, 2nd and 3rd class areas for plastic waste were 21.42%, 19.26% and 26.92% respectively. Furthermore, the separation efficiency for other waste for 1st, 2nd and 3rd class areas were 51.19%, 59.57% and 62.41% respectively. Per capita waste generation rate for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd class area was found to be 0.63, 0.52 and 0.27 (kg/person/day) respectively. The relationship between household’s socio-demographic characteristics and their SS efficiency was found to be generally weak. Suggestions for the design of appropriate SS schemes in Kumasi have been enumerated. It is inferred from the results of the optimization model solution that centralized composting, community composting and plastic waste recycling if included in the waste management system in Kumasi could reduce the annual system cost substantially within the limits of assumptions made in this study. The study demonstrates the usefulness of system analysis to the understanding of system performance in supporting decisions in the selection of waste treatment options. Further research directions are suggested to support the development of sustainable integrated solid waste management in Kumasi
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    The Study of Alternative Chemical Stabilization of Clays with Agricultural Waste Materials for Rural Housing
    (2012) Amoanyi, Robert
    The stabilization of clay for improved structural properties was investigated using the Afari and Mfensi clays. Geotechnical chemical and phase analytical methods were used to characterize both the raw and treated clays. For stabilization, lime, cocoa pod husk ash (CPA) and oil palm empty bunch ash (PBA) were used. The linear and volumetric drying shrinkages, dry and wet compressive strength and water absorption of the samples were investigated. Some of the samples were kept in the open for two years for durability test. Results showed that plasticity, percentage linear and volumetric drying shrinkages were reduced on the addition of the additives. There was an increase in compressive strength of the treated samples with lime, CPA and PBA as additives. Among these three stabilizers tested, the lime plus CPA and lime plus PBA showed good durability behaviour. A maximum compressive strength of 5.85 N/mm2 was obtained from treated test pieces made with Mfensi clay (75%) plus lime (10%) and CPA (15%). Minimum water absorption values of 27.75% and 17.78% were also obtained for the treated test pieces made with Afari clay (70%) plus lime (15%) and CPA (15%) and Mfensi clay (65%) plus lime (15%) and CPA (20%) respectively. Test pieces treated with the lime plus CPA and lime plus PBA as additives did not disintegrate after 28-day of soaking in water. XRD analysis showed that improvement in structural properties of the clays was due to the conversion of part of lime to calcium carbonate (Calcite, which helped in binding the clay particles together. Additionally, other components of the additives, such as potassium hydroxide entered into reaction with some of the components of the clays as muscovite, silica and kaolinite to produce cementitious material.
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    Studies on the Effect of Selected Local Admixtures on Essential Properties of Cement for Housing Construction
    (2012-06-15) Atiemo, Eugene
    Current trend in cement production is to introduce inorganic admixtures to improve the technical properties such as workability and reduced cracks in concrete. In addition, replacement of clinker or cement greatly reduces environmental pollution due to release of greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, Nitrogen oxides (Nox) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2)during cement production. Cement replacement also reduces the high energy cost associated with clinker production and this leads to reduced price of cement. The objective of this study was to determine the effect and suitability of four local inorganic materials; namely, clay, limestone, clam shells and steel slag (all obtained in Ghana) as mineral admixtures in cement for construction purposes. Blended cements, ranging from binary to quinternary mixes, were produced. The soundness of the blended cement samples were less than 2.0mm. Water permeability tests showed clearly that addition of the admixtures, except slag, reduced the porosity of the cement by at least 4% and as much as 20%. The water demand of the blended cements ranged from 24.5% to 34.5% and that it increased as the percentage replacements of cement were increased. The water demand of the blended cements ranged from 24.5% to 34.5% and that it increased as the percentage replacements of cement are increased. The setting times of all the blended cements were within the standard limits. iv The infrared spectrometry, X-ray Diffraction(XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-ray (SEM/EDX) and Thermogravimetric (DTA/TG) analysis of the study clearly showed that the presence of the four admixtures reduced Ca(OH)2 content considerably and improved impermeability of concrete. The Infrared analysis indicated that when the admixture content was increased from binary to ternarythe accelerating effect of admixtures on hydration was enhanced. This effect manifested in high early strength of the blended cement, especially the CaCO3-based blended cement samples. The ettringite and monosulphonate of CaCO3-based admixtures (that is, limestone and shell cement) bands were almost flat or disappeared compared to others, indicating increased reactivity between CO32- and SiO44- ions. Significantly, the study showed that a combination of three admixtures (5% each) or all four (2.5% each) in the cement almost eliminated portlandite content as compared to 36.9% in the reference cement as provided from the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. This is a novel revelation and it was sufficiently corroborated by the EDX and TG/DTA analysis.The EDX and X-ray analysis also showed increased silica and oxygen composition of the blended compared to the control indicating increasing amounts of calcium silicate components. The mortar compressive strength tests showed that blending 5%x, 5%x5%y, 2.5%x2.5%y2.5%z and 2.5%x2.5%y2.5%z2.5p by mass of the admixture(s) produced Class 42.5N cement. These cements can therefore be used for early strength concrete v works and all types of construction works. 1:2:4 blended cement concretes with water cement ratio of 0.6 reached the targeted strength value of 20 ± 2 MPa at 28 days. The study showed that the effect of seawater (NaCl) and Na2SO4 on strength was reduced as the number of admixtures in the cement were increased. In all, the quinternary (2.5%x2.5%y2.5%z2.5%p) cement provided the best blend that could resist the deleterious effect of both seawater and sulphate solution negative action. These give ample proof that a combination of three or four admixtures in cement greatly influenced the reductionofportlandite content leading to high resistance to acidic attack. Economically, replacing 15% of total clinker imports by these admixtures would amount to a capital saving of at least $33.43 million per annum to Ghana.
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    Crash prediction models and risk factors for two-lane urban roadways
    (2013-05-26) Adams, Charles Anum
    Ghana's road network has claimed over twenty thousand lives in the last decade. More than ten thousand person suffer various degree of injuries that require medical attention annually since year 2000...
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    Modelling and Experemental Studies on a Mixed-Mode Natural Convection Solar Crop Dryer with Back up Heater
    (2013-09-15) Sekyere, Charles Kofi Kafui
    This thesis presents the design, experimental, and theoretical analysis of a mixed-mode natural convection solar crop dryer with back up heater(MNCSCDBH). The ultimate aim of the research is to study the thermal buoyancy characteristics and possible drying conditions of a mixed-mode natural convection solar crop dryer with integrated collector-storage and back-backup heater through modelling and experimental studies...
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    Characterization of Glucoamylase Produced by Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus sp.
    (2015-04-20) Nyamful, Andrew
    Amylase enzymes are important enzymes employed in starch processing industries for hydrolysis of polysaccharides into simple sugars. Microorganisms including a number of fungal species have been used to produce amylases more economically than from other sources. Glucoamylase (C3009H4570N782O1012S13) is an exoenzyme that removes glucose units consecutively from the nonreducing ends of starch and oligosaccharides. The enzyme also cleaves α-1, 6- and α-1, 3-bonds but at a slower action. Glucoamylase is used in processed-food industry, fermentation technology, textile and paper industries. In this study, four native fungal isolates, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Rhizopus species and Fusarium oxysporum and the potential of five solid substrates, wheat bran, rice bran, groundnut pod, maize bran and cocoa pod for glucoamylase production were investigated using Solid-State Fermentation process. Isolates of Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus species on wheat bran as substrate at spore concentrations of 1 x 107 per ml produced the highest enzyme activities under optimum growth conditions. Glucoamylase production was found to be affected by temperature, pH, incubation period, nature of substrate and the kind of microorganism used. Glucoamylase production by Aspergillus niger was found to be affected by nitrogen. Glucoamylase produced by Aspergillus niger yielded maximum enzyme activity of 6.66 U/ml in 18 hours of incubation period at a temperature of 40ºC, nitrogen concentration of 0.2 g/l and at pH 5.0. Similarly, glucoamylase produced by Rhizopus species gave maximum enzyme activity of 4.44 U/ml in 18 hours of incubation period at a temperature of 40ºC and pH 4.5. Molecular weights of proteins in culture filtrates were determined by SDS-PAGE. Proteins with molecular weights 61.48, 29.68, 21.06 and 12.33 KDa were identified from culture filtrates of Aspergillus niger and proteins with molecular weights 96.40, 65.56, 51.80, 29.05 and vii 19.75 KDa were found from culture filtrates of Rhizopus species. Kinetic studies using Hanes-Woolf’s plot and starch as substrate gave Kmax = 0.0009548 g/l and Vmax = 2.387 g/l.min for enzyme produced by Aspergillus niger and Kmax = 0.0007443 g/l and Vmax = 2.481 g/l.min for enzyme produced by Rhizopus species
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    Composting of abattoir waste and river reed: effect of feedstock and aeration mechanism on process efficiency
    (2015-04-22) George, Nana Kwesi Rockson
    Few successful composting facilities exist in Ghanaand there is limited information and experience in composting abattoir waste and river reed. These wastes are deemed to be potentially suitable for composting but not much has been reported on the composting dynamics when they are composted with different amendment materials and aeration mechanisms. Therefore, this research sought to investigate opportunities that exist for compostingin Ghana based on experiences of currently and previously operational composting facilities in Ghana and evaluate the effect of feedstock formulation, turning frequency, and aeration mechanisms on process efficiency and nutrient quality during windrow composting of abattoir waste and river reed. The state of composting facilities in Ghana was assessed through questionnaires and interviews with managersof such facilities. Two composting experiments were undertaken. The first one was conducted utilizing abattoir waste as the common substrate with source separated market/commercial waste, cocoa pod husk, corn cob and straw, yard trimming and sawmill wood shavings waste as other feedstock materials in the formulation of different composting piles. The second experiment was conducted to assess the effect of four aeration mechanisms on the composting process under an already existing formulated feedstock compositions using river reed (as main substrate), cocoa seed husk, poultry manure, clay soil, cow dung and banana waste. Parameters monitored in the piles include: Temperature, Moisture Content, Organic Matter, pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Carbon and Total Nitrogen, Macro-nutrients (N, P, K, Mg and Ca) and heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Ni, and Cr). It was found that private agro-based facilities were the only operational composting facilities at the time of the study. Opportunities exist for investigating passive aeration mechanisms in some of iv these facilities to reduce the cost mainly due to the use of mechanical turning equipment. Analyses of physicochemical parameters confirm that feedstock composition or turning frequency had significant effect on physicochemical parameters studied. Final C/N ratio of the abattoirwaste compost ranged from 17.03 - 20.09, with no significant difference between the treatments and the interaction of feedstock and turning frequency. Organic matter degradation was influenced by both feedstock composition and turning frequency; difference in degradation data was also observed when fitted to afirst or zero order kinetics, with co-efficient of correlation (r) > 0.918. Analysis on composting of river reed, however, revealed that the kinetics of degradation could be represented by a first order rate equation. Also, findings from the studysuggest that compost maturity should be assessed by measuring two or more compostparameters, and that parameters of compost maturity need to satisfy the following threshold values: NH4 + /NO3 - ratio < 3.5, C/N ratio < 15; stable OM Loss, Temperature < 50 0 C). Passive composting showed comparable characteristics with mechanically aerated systems from this study. Multi-regression equationswere produced to predict nutrient (T, P, K) levels during composting using physicochemical parameters that are easy to measure.
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    Improving Faecal Sludge Dewatering Efficiency of Unplanted Drying Bed
    (2015-05-22) Kuffour, Richard Amankwah
    This thesis examines how to improve on faecal sludge dewatering efficiency of unplanted filter beds to produce biosolids and less concentrated filtrate. The experiment was conducted on bench scale drying beds constructed at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology campus. Local sand was graded into particle size ranges of 0.1- 0.5 mm, 0.5 - 1.0 mm and 1.0 - 1.7 mm, with uniformity coefficients of 2.422, 1.727 and 2.029, respectively. They were represented as filter media, FM1, FM2 and FM3 respectively. Faecal sludge, consisting of public toilet sludge and septage collected from cesspit emptiers discharging at Dompoase treatment ponds in Kumasi, Ghana, were mixed in the ratio of 1:1 by volume, and was dewatered using the three different filter media, FM1, FM2 and FM3 to determine which one was most efficient. The Solid Loading Rate (SLR) of the faecal sludge was varied in the phase two whereby public toilet sludge and septage, mixed in the ratio of 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3 by volume representing SLR1, SLR2 and SLR3 respectively. These were dewatered on filter medium one (FM1) which was selected in phase one. Six cycles of dewatering were run for each of the phases. Percolate volume was measured every 24 hours. The total solids (TS) of the faecal sludge used for dewatering varied in every cycle so the TS was kept constant at 36.64 g/l as SLR1 and 26.93 g/l as SLR3 in all the cycles in the phase three to determine the effect of constant TS on the dewatering process. Further improvement of the dewatering was investigated by mixing sawdust with faecal sludge in phase four. Different percentages of sawdust, 50%, 100%, 150% and 0% (control) by weight of the TS of the faecal sludge, with TS of 26.93 g/l which was selected in phase two, were mixed with the faecal sludge to determine the effect of different quantities of sawdust as physical conditioner on the vii dewatering of faecal sludge. The dried biosolids obtained from the different phases of dewatering were analysed for plant nutrients and heavy metals to determine their agricultural potential. The dewatering on different filter media, FM1, FM2, and FM3 showed average dewatering times of 9.8, 9.9 and 9.1 days respectively without significant differences (p=0.212). However the percolate quality showed significant differences between the different filter media in the removal of TS, TVS, SS, COD, DCOD and NH3-N with FM1 having the highest removal efficiency for each parameter. Accumulation of organic matter in the top 10 cm of the filter bed indicated that FM1 was least likely to clog since it had the least quantity of organic matter in the sand. It also produced the largest quantity of organic matter and thus had the potential to generate the most biosolids. The faecal sludge of SLR1, SLR2 and SLR3 dewatered significantly at different average dewatering times of 7.2, 4.8 and 3.8 days respectively. Removal efficiencies at the different solid loading rates, though very high for TS, SS, TVS, COD, DCOD, NH3-N, did not show any significant difference. Organic matter build up in the top 10 cm of the filter bed was least in SLR3, hence least likely to clog the filter bed. Again, SLR3, SLR2 and SLR1 showed the potential for annual generation of biosolids at 438, 421 and 379 (kg/m2/year) respectively. Therefore SLR3 of faecal sludge was recommended for dewatering on the selected filter bed. When TS of the faecal sludge for dewatering was kept constant and the number of cycles was increased to eight, FM1, FM2 and FM3, dewatering FS of SLR1 at constant TS of 36.64 g/l improved their dewatering time to 8.9, 8.8 and 8.7 days respectively while SLR3 with constant TS of 26.93 g/l, dewatering on FM1 had the shortest dewatering time of 4.4 days. SLR3 was significantly most efficient in removing TS, SS, TVS, COD and EC. Organic matter accumulation rate in the top viii 10cm of filter bed was least for SLR3 followed by FM1, FM2 and FM3. The percentage organic matter of the biosolid were 69, 68, 62 and 59, leading to estimation of annual organic matter production of 334, 193, 202 and 177 kg TVS/m2/year for SLR3, FM1, FM2 and FM3 respectively. The sawdust-faecal sludge mixture of 50%, 100%, 150% and 0% TS of faecal sludge dewatered at 5.3, 4.9, 3.9 and 5.6 days respectively with 150% being fastest to dewater. The 150% sawdust-faecal sludge treatment was most efficient with respect to removal of contaminant loads like TVS, SS, COD and NH3-N, but was least in TS and EC removal. The 150% sawdust-faecal sludge mixture showed the least organic matter accumulation rate in the top 10cm of the filter media, followed by the 100%, 50% and the 0% treatments. The percentage TVS of the biosolids produced were 70.1, 77.3, 80.6 and 66.3 for 50%, 100%, 150% and 0% sawdust-faecal sludge mixtures, leading to annual organic matter estimation of 359, 567, 987 and 225 (kg TVS/m2/year) respectively. The agricultural potential of the biosolids analysed showed that, dried biosolids from the filter beds had percentage carbon (C) ranging between 28% and 43.5% while percentage nitrogen (N) in the same samples ranged between 1.82% and 3.53% leading to C/N ratio, ranging between 8.7 and 23.9. The percentage phosphorus (P) in the same samples ranged between 1.73% and 3.69% while the percentage potassium (K) values were within the range of 0.66% and 1.67%. The maximum concentration of heavy metals recorded in the dried biosolids were 0.225, 4.38, 0.024, 0.89, 0.55 and 0.208 mg/kg for Cu, Fe, Pb, Cd, Zn and Mn, respectively which were all far below the respective standards permissible in biosolids worth for use in agriculture. ix Summary of criteria needed to improve dewatering efficiency of faecal sludge using unplanted filter beds The faecal sludge generated in most cities in Ghana consists of mostly septage and public toilet sludge which contain high contaminant load. This study has shown that it is possible to dewater it using unplanted sand filter beds. Sand particle sizes ranging between (0.1 - 0.5, 0.5 - 1.0 and 1.0 - 1.7) mm with uniformity coefficients of 2.422, 1.727 and 2.029, respectively are effective, with particle size of (0.1 - 0.5) mm being most effective. Using these particle size ranges, faecal sludge of 217 – 360 kgTS/m2 could be dewatered on the filter bed in one year which is equivalent to faecal sludge of 22 – 27 persons. Public toilet sludge (PTS) and septage ratio of 1:3 by volume is most effective in improving the dewatering time as well as generating largest volume of biosolids though other ratios like 1:1 and 1:2 are also effective. These ratios have the capacity of reducing dewatering time per cycle from 9 - 12 days to 4 – 7 days. This can dewater faecal sludge of between 379 – 532 kgTS/m2 of filter bed. Addition of sawdust of between 50% - 150% TS of faecal sludge by weight reduced the dewatering time to less than 4 days. Addition of sawdust of 150% TS is most effective in reducing the dewatering time and contaminant load removal. About 575 kg TS/m2 of faecal sludge can be dewatered on a filter bed of particle size range of 0.1 - 0.5 mm and a solid loading rate of 1:3 for PTS and septage in a year if sawdust of 150% TS of the faecal sludge is added. This generates almost three times the quantity of biosolids that could have been generated with very good organic bulking quality.
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    Liquid Phase Oxidation of Phenols in Industrial Wastewater Using an Adsorbent – Catalyst Matrix
    (2015-05-22) Ansah, Abel Kuntu Blankson
    Phenols constitute an important class of toxic organic compounds found in most refinery waste water streams. Due to its refractory nature towards conventional waste water treatment methods it requires a much more severe conditions to effect meaningful oxidation. Catalytic Wet Air Oxidation (CWAO), the most promising treatment method for phenol abatement currently has a high operation cost due largely to the absence of a suitable cost effective catalyst. The current study has investigated the use of the spent Fluidized Catalytic Cracking (FCC) catalyst as a suitable cost effective catalyst for the CWAO process and identified the appropriate operating conditions for its usage in this regard. The spent FCC catalyst has been proven to be a good adsorbent of phenol, a property not found in the fresh catalyst. Its performance as phenol adsorbent compared with activated carbon has been found to be about 16.62% that of activated carbon. It was found out that particles were agglomerated with a d25 for the fresh and spent catalyst being 48 μm and 68 μm respectively against a d50 of 68 μm and 88 μm respectively. The pore volume had also increased from 0.4 cm3/g to 0.9 cm3/g. The spent FCC unlike the fresh catalyst was found to contain Ni, V, Cu, Fe and Sr which are potential catalyst. The spent catalyst was impregnated with varying amounts of CuO, Fe2O3 and MnO2 and tested for phenol oxidation using various amounts of H2O2 as radical initiator. It was however found out that the spent catalyst impregnated with 0.97% Fe2O3 was a very effective catalyst for the catalytic wet air oxidation of phenol using 1 vol. % H2O2 as a iii radical initiator and a relatively low air pressure of 0.4 cm Hg (533 Pa) gauge and temperature of 50oC. The results were then tested with refinery stripped sour water with about 100% mineralization.
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    Artistic and Educational Values of Kusakɔ Kɔ Initiation Rites of Avatime in the Volta Region
    (2015-05-22) Dedume, Victor
    The woman is a significant figure in the development of Avatime community. People of Avatime recognize and value the role of women in society and therefore mark the transition of a female from girlhood to womanhood. The problem is that many artistic and educational values are embedded in the celebration of this transition called kusak) k) initiation rites, yet they have not been described, discussed or documented, therefore they could be lost. Moreover, appreciable amounts of vital information embodied in kusak) k) initiation rites are not being taught in the schools of Avatime. Sadly, the rich cultural heritage embodied in the artistic and educational values which should be preserved have not been documented to put the area in the spotlight of the world. This research adopted a qualitative approach, specifically ethnography, to collect data through observation and interviews. The main findings are that, the Avatimes mark the passage of their girls into womanhood by performing series of rituals known as kusak) k). Numerous artistic and educational values are evident in the rituals. Artistic values are demonstrated in the use of ritualized visual and performing arts. Educationally, the performing arts serve as symbols of identity and means of communication. Recommendations were that there should be collaboration between the pastors and the custodians of Avatime traditional area to erase the notion that there are sacrilegious beliefs and superstitions embedded in kusak) k) rites. It is also recommended that more group ritual activities be encouraged and done once a year for school going girls and workers to participate during school holidays and weekend respectively. Control measures should be instituted to curb promiscuity in the area. Finally, it is highly recommended that this document should be incorporated in the Art Education Curriculum to put the values of kusak) k) in the spotlight of the world.
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    Impact Attenuation System Using a Passive Damper
    (2015-05-22) Agyei-Agyemang, Anthony
    The goal of this work is to mitigate the degree of damage to passengers caused by automobile collisions. Crash phenomena involving road vehicles were investigated for the purpose of developing an impact attenuation design that can withstand speeds higher than the current specified range of up to 4 km/h (for a bumper). Different impact attenuation systems in the vehicle were studied with emphasis on the bumper modeling, analysis and design. A mathematical model for a bumper was developed. Simulation of impact of the bumper against a fixed barrier was performed. A passive friction element was introduced into the bumper system to improve on the attenuation of the impact and kinetic energy absorption capacity. A mathematical model of the bumper-damper system was formulated and used to simulate impact phenomena for a 1900 kg mass moving at a speed of 70 km/h (19.4 m/s), 17.5 times the speed of a typical design specification. The simulation revealed that the energy absorption capacity of the bumper was improved with the addition of a friction element. Design parameters for the friction damper were extracted from the results of the simulation. The extracted design parameters include stiffness, k, and coefficient of the damping, c, of the bumper. The use of the results from the simulation in the design of the bumper was pursued with success. Friction damper designs were proposed. Two of these designs were built and used in experiments to verify their effectiveness and to validate the simulation results. The experiments revealed that iv higher energy absorption could be achieved with the addition of a friction element to traditional bumpers. From simulation, it was observed that a combination of material stiffness and damping factors could influence energy absorption ability of the damper. It was observed that the addition of a friction element to an ordinary bumper-damper system with the new design parameters can improve its energy absorption capacity by 103.6 kJ, that is about 146 %. Additionally, it was also observed that the addition of the friction element to a traditional vehicle could increase the critical design speed from 4 km/h (1.11 m/s) to 14.9 km/h (4.1 m/s). It was concluded that a passive friction damper system could be used to attenuate road vehicle impact energy in collisions (of vehicles of mass similar to that of a typical sedan car) at speeds 3 times higher than the speed for which current conventional bumpers are designed to attenuate (i.e. 4 km/h).
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    Enhancing Aerodynamic Performance Estimation in Small Aircraft Development Using Object-Oriented Technique
    (2015-05-22) Fiagbe, Yesuenyeagbe Atsu Kwabla
    Air transportation is expected to play a major role in global transportation systems in the future. A third world country like Ghana needs to prepare to leapfrog into the era of small aircraft in air transportation. As such, small aircraft design has to be approached in such a way as to derive optimum performance for any configuration that may be developed for given mission. Estimation of the aerodynamic forces developed by aircraft configuration forms a significant and challenging part of the design process. In practice, the aerodynamic performance is estimated from the coefficients obtained from the chosen wing profile. However, it can be envisioned that every section of the configuration could contribute to the aerodynamic forces. The goal of this work is to develop a technique or method that takes into account the contribution of all sections of the configuration with the aim of improving the accuracy of the evaluation of the aircraft performance. The concept of the research is built on object oriented technique such that an object is defined as a function that accepts an input and results in an output. The input parameters comprise of two components, namely, fixed and design parameters. The output gives the geometry and performance characteristics of the aircraft. The performance is modelled as integral function over the surface and results in determination of Lift and Drag forces. The design parameters are used in creating the geometry such that with given set of parameters, unique and specific class of aircraft would be developed. The developed system and tools were validated and found to be satisfactory. The lift performance of models with same wing profile indicated that fuselage components also contributed toward the overall lift force. The total lift and drag estimates of an aircraft using the developed system is more accurate than using estimates from the wing alone. Further, results of the research show that for design of small aircraft, drag performance is optimum at angle of attack between 2o and 4o. Also, performance study shows that luggage cabin object significantly influences the drag performance such that, shorter portions perform better. It is recommended that the influence of the luggage cabin as observed be validated experimentally.
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    Multi-dimensional approach for evaluating land degradation in the Savanna belt of the White Volta Basin
    (2015-07-10) Baatuuwie, Bernard Nuoleyeng
    The White Volta Basin (WVB) is located within the Savanna Ecological Zone shared by Ghana, Burkina Faso and Togo. It is of national importance to the development of these countries through agriculture, urban water and hydro-electric supply, transportation, tourism and others. Despite its benefits and potentials, it is currently under threat due to land degradation (LD) driven by both anthropogenic and natural forces. A multidimensional approach was employed to assess the degradation at two spatial scales (i.e. Basin and sub-basin scales) and propose mitigation measures. Spatial data from remote sensing historical land cover (1990-2007); existing GIS database of soil erosion obtained from RUSLE was integrated to determine LD hotspots in the area at a basin scale. Sub-basin scale assessment was also done to complement the basin scale analysis to ensure information complementarities. Observable indicator system developed from literature and expert consultation was used in conjunction with FAO field protocol for mapping land degradation in the sub-basin. Additionally, data on socio-ecological determinants of land degradation and mitigation measures were also gathered through interviews and group discussions. The results indicated that land degradation is persistently occurring in the basin and can be effectively mapped using these indicators. Soil loss through erosion and negative land use/cover conversion (NLUCC) were common indicators identified and used to map land degradation at both basin and sub-basin‘s scales. About 82% of the basin is degraded due to negative land use/cover conversion or soil erosion. Of this, 33% of the basin‘s area is experiencing severe degradation. Degradation hotspots were found around areas where urbanization was on the increase. A cross-scale analysis of the different indicators at the two scales showed that, there exist matches and divergences between some indicators. The best indicator matches was between the net soil loss at the basin scale with that of soil erosion state at the sub-basin scale (92.6%) and erosion extent (92 %). There exists a great divergence between negative land use/cover conversions at the basin scale and erosion severity at the sub-basin scale with a divergent value of 87 %. Poor agricultural soil and rangeland management, deforestation as well as climate change were perceived to be the direct drivers of LD in the basin. Increased in human population, change in demand and consumption for food and fuel wood, poverty and inadequate labour were the main indirect drivers responsible for the degradation in the basin. Identified possible mitigation measures to combat the degradation in the basin include: controlled bush burning or no burning, minimum tillage and crop rotation. Others were stone bunds, organic manures and mineral fertilization. The study revealed that land degradation is occurring in the basin and can be mapped using both proxy and observable indicators. Thus, this will reduce the cost and time involved to assess land degradation at the sub-basin or field levels using traditional methods. It is therefore recommended that the appraisal of land degradation should embrace these three pillars (multi-scale, multi-indicators and actor-based) as proposed in this study for effective and accurate results as well as development of appropriate mitigation interventions.
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    Simulating agricultural land-use adaptation under changing climate using Multi-Agent System model in the Upper East Region of Ghana
    (2015-07-10) Amadou, Mahamadou Laouali
    One of the operationalised tools of human-environment system (HES) modelling approach is Multi-Agent System (MAS) which has been used in a number of areas to study the dynamics and management of human and natural systems especially when facing unexpected disturbances. Therefore, increasing studies are interested in using Multi-Agent analyses for the understanding of agricultural adaptation to environmental changes. However, when it comes to the use of MAS for the operationalisation of adaptation decision making in agricultural land use based on farmers’ perception of climate variability, only very few studies empirically operationalise the concept in their simulations. Also, another challenge is how to isolate planned adaptation within a large traditional number of autonomous adaptation practices. The current research therefore focused on the implementation of a MAS approach for investigating the traditional adaptive strategies in a small scale area in the Upper East Region of Ghana by considering farmers’ perception of climate change and variability. In order to achieve the purpose of this, Land Use Dynamic Simulator (LUDAS) approach was adapted and modified by integrating the two stepdecision making sub-models. This modified version of LUDAS called SKY-LUDAS (referring to the communities where it was implemented: Sirigu-Sumbrungu-Kandiga- Yuwa) was constructed to capture the empirical heterogeneity of farm household agents and landscape agents (biophysical environment), and also to explicitly simulate interactions between these two agent types. From the results of the multivariate statistical methods, three farm household agent groups were identified. Also the factors explaining the decision of these three household agent groups on the choice of the six identified land-use types were analysed. Two submodels were developed and calibrated for implementing the two-step decision making submodels: Perception-of-Climate-Change and Adaptation Choice strategies. Simulation results of SKY-LUDAS suggested that the land-use behaviour in the study area reflects a tendency of subsistence farming. In terms of farm-households’ livelihood strategy, especially the structure of the gross income, there was a growing contribution of rice and groundnut. Also the pattern of the gross income under the scenario of perception on climate change (PCC) showed explicitly the contribution of the adaptation options in the households’ livelihood strategy. Accordingly, SKY-LUDAS has revealed a gradual shift among land-use types from traditional cereals farming to the cultivation of groundnuts, rice, maize and soybean.